Slavery in belle isle in Richmond VA Research Paper

Slavery in belle isle in Richmond VA - Research Paper Example The only barrier that kept the prisoners in one place was a ditch and a wall made from earth. However, the guards shot the prisoners that wanted to escape and crossed the barrier. Because the prisoners were exceedingly many in the prisons, the owners of the prisons sold them or made them work for people (Takagi 43). This way the congestion in the prison reduced significantly because of the number of prisoners sold as slaves. Therefore, the factories that existed in the island received labor from the slaves and made substantial profits from their trade. The slave trade existed in the island for nearly two hundred years. The black slaves constituted the biggest number of slaves. Even after the abolition of the slave trade in most places around the world, it did not end in the island. This is because the slave trade brought substantial profits to the traders and owners of the prison. Slave trade was particularly beneficial to the people that owned farms, factories and industries in Richmond, the owners of the island. This is because they offered cheap labor. Because the owners of the productions had many slaves, they did the work easily. The slaves bought were usually from Africa meaning that they were blacks. The economic importance of the slave trade made the trade exist for an exceedingly long time. The economy of Richmond grew (Takagi 45). Because of the inhumanity that had developed towards the slave trade the trade existed for even a longer time. With time, Virginia had the biggest number of slaves in America. This was because of the prisoners held in the area as well as the agricultural demand of labor. The place depended fully on plantation farming for its economy. This means that they had to exploit the farms that they had, and this was only though slavery. Both men and women worked in the farms. After the civil war, many people in America set the slaves free (Takagi 43). Virginia

Examining The Concept Of Lean Synchronization Information Technology Essay

Examining The Concept Of Lean Synchronization Information Technology Essay Lean manufacturing is an approach of continuous improvement that focuses on the removal of waste resources from a process so that the goods flow to the customer at determined rate with minimum inventory. It mainly focuses on eliminating resources that does not create value for the customer. Based on Toyota Production System, Lean concentrates on preserving value with less work. Lean synchronization is the aim of achieving the flow of products and services which is able to deliver exactly what customers want, in exact quantities, exactly when needed, exactly where required at the lowest possible cost (Slack et al, 2010). This report evaluates the utility and relevance of basic Lean principles and Management and applies the same principles in contemporary business environment. Executive Summary First part of the report talks about theoretical aspect of lean. The concept of lean synchronization is explained first. After this the principles of lean and benefits of using lean are described. Subsequently barriers to lean implementation are explained. Second half of the report accounts practical application of lean in context with healthcare industry. Firstly the need to apply lean in hospitals is determined. Basic need of lean in hospitals is to: Reduce patient wait time Reduce cost and increase savings and Improve staff efficiency. Lean principles are than applied on hospital operations. Analysis discovered that time creates value to the patient. After this, value stream was assessed and waste processes were identified in the journey of patients recovery and treatment. Further to this, wastes were identified and recommendations were proposed to eliminate those wastes. Important Identified Wastes are: Extra work done for simple and easy tasks. Investigations and tests those are not required. Patient waiting for tests and surgeries. Redundancy in treating a patient. Recommendations to eliminate such wastes: Avoid the use of complex equipments that makes the processes tedious and time consuming. Perform only those tests that are required for the treatment. Equipments must be ready before a patient comes to pathology lab and operation theatre so as to avoid waste of time. Things must be done in right way in first attempt so as to avoid repetitive actions. Concept behind Lean Synchronization The term lean came into existence post World War II when there was a huge shortage of resources in Automobile sector in Japan. Toyota Company developed the concept of achieving most with optimum resources, by continuous elimination of waste. Today this concept is well known as Lean Manufacturing across the globe and is not limited to manufacturing processes. Lean applies to the whole enterprise including supply-chain, new product development process and services. The concept of lean thinking was introduced to European world in 1991 by the book written by Womack, Jones, and Roos: The Machine That Changed the World. According to Slack et al (2009), lean synchronization is concerned all about: Elimination of waste in whole process Involving all the resources and Continuously improving the process Lean approach simply calls to work smarter rather than harder with value driven sense of purpose. Organizations that follow lean thinking understand customer value and focus the processes to increase it. The ultimate aim is to create a perfect value process for the customer with zero waste. Such contemporary approach creates processes that enable companies to respond to changing customer desires with high quality, high variety, and low cost with very fast throughput times. Lean Principles The main guiding principle of lean to create right value for the customer with minimum effort is compounded of five key principles: value, value stream, flow, pull and perfection. Value: The key principle is to identify the customers view point about what creates value to the customer. Value Stream: This is to identify all the steps in value chain and to eliminate all those that do not create value to the end product. Flow: In order to make a smooth flow of the product towards customer, the value-creating steps must occur in tight sequence. Pull: Make only what is pulled by the customer and creates synchronization between demand and manufacturing process. Perfection: Once the value is identified, value stream is specified with wasted steps eliminated and flow and pull are introduced, execute the whole process again and continue until perfection is reached in which perfect value is developed without waste. 5stepslean.gif Fig.1 Benefits of Applying Lean Traditional Approach: Traditional approach assumes that each stage is separated from the other stage by placing the output in an inventory. The next stage will take the outputs from the buffer inventory and will pass them to the succeeding buffer e.g. as shown in fig.2, outputs from stage A are stored in buffer inventory which feeds the system for Stage B. In this manner each stage of the operation acts independently and picks material from buffer inventory and processes it for the subsequent buffer. These buffers insulate each stage from its neighbors and operations of one stage do not hinder the next stage. Hence if operations at stage A cease due to some reason, stage B can still continue for at least one time. The condition of insulation of each stage that seeks to promote traditional approach is indeed the learning argument of this system. Problems: Inventory remains idle. Slow throughput times since items spend more time waiting in buffer. Lack of coordination due to insulation of stages. Problem solving responsibility will be centered on people working in that very stage. C:UsersVibhorDesktopUntitled.jpg Fig.2 Lean Approach: In contrast with the traditional approach, lean approach processes and passes items directly to the next stage, eliminating the buffer inventories, hence reducing the barriers between stages. This provides the required amount of input for each stage at the required time. In this approach, problems at any stage have different impact on the process e.g. in fig.3 if stage A stops its operations, than subsequent stages will immediately notice the issue and the problem is quickly exposed to the whole system. This helps in improving the quality by providing quick feedback at each stage. C:UsersVibhorDesktopUntitled1.jpg Fig.3 In the traditional approach, if one stage stops functioning the other stage may continue to process by the available buffer resources resulting in high capacity utilization. But generally this situation would not sustain for a long period of time and the whole process will come to halt once the buffer is empty. On the other hand, in lean approach each time there is a blockage in any stage of the process, the whole process will come to halt, reducing the capacity utilization initially. Therefore where traditional approach encourages efficiency by protecting each stage from disruption, lean approach motivates the whole system to solve the problem. Fig.4 Source: Slack et al, 2010 According to Wild (2002), following are the benefits of Lean synchronization. Also evident from the above differentiation: Reduced inventories and work in progress; Less use of space; Shorter throughput times; Increased employee motivation and participation; Smoother work flows; Increased productivity; Improved quality and customer service Barriers to Lean Synchronization Lean synchronization aims at managing the operations process in such a way that it achieves exactly what customers are looking from the operation. Pure lean synchronization intends smooth, continuous flow without any sort of delay, waste and imperfection. Following are the major barriers to achieve this ideal state: Failure to eliminate waste in all parts of the operation Failure to harness the contribution of all the people involved in the operation. Failure to establish improvement as a continuous activity. Source: (Slack et al, 2010) Waste Identification and Elimination: Elimination of waste is the basic part of lean thinking and identifying the waste is the first step towards its elimination. Any activity that does not add to value is called as waste. The wastes that hinder the streamlined flow are: Wait time worker wait time and machine wait time is waste. This is usually dependant on efficiency of machinery and workers. Conveyance Change in layout can bring processes closer resulting in reduced movements. Inventory Inappropriate quantity of production According to Toyota, supplying less or more quantity than required is the greatest source of waste. Delivery Time- Early delivery is wasteful. Therefore items must be delivered Just In Time. Variability- If quality varies according to customer expectations and customer considers to be inadequately supplied than the whole process is wasteful. waste-poster.jpg Fig.5 Employee Participation: Organizations following lean philosophy must encourage its employees to participate in problem solving activity. The intention to encourage the feeling of personal responsibility and ownership within the employees is referred as respect-for-people. Some basic factors in encouraging employee involvement are: Environment Safety safety standards and environment must be followed by everyone. Flexibility employees must be given authority to take decisions and restrictive practices must be removed. Equality each employee must be treated equally. Creativity each persons creativity must be utilized to improve the processes. Total people involvement- staff must be encouraged to participate in other activities like recruitment, supply chain and customer dealing. This improves the processes and benefits the company as a whole. Continuous Improvement: Kaizen: Kaizen is a Japanese term for improvement or change for better. In terms of Masaaki Imai, Kaizen is a continuous process of improvement in which each individual of an organization is involved to achieve a state of perfection. Three guiding principles of kaizen as explained by Hill (2005) are: Process reviews review of entire process from designing stage to delivery. People participation employees insights to improve the process. Constant need for change seeking improvement and implementing changes result in achieving perfection. kaizen.JPG Fig.6 Source: Archfield Consulting Group Deming Cycle: It is also called PDCA cycle which involve a team of people who continuously find improvements in an organization. Waters (2002) defined this cycle as: Plan review of existing processes, information gathering, finding alternatives and suggesting improvement plans. Do plan in implemented and performance data is collected. Check analyzes the collected data to check if expected improvements appear or not. Act- if improvements are visible, the operation is made permanent else lessons are learnt. deming cycle.png Fig.7 Applying Lean in Healthcare Industry Applying lean in healthcare industry is similar to its application in manufacturing. Lean manufacturing reduces waste from the set of operations that takes place in producing of items. Similarly lean can reduce waste and improve the services provided to the patients in hospitals. This may also help hospitals to manage issues like financial deficits, infections, waiting queues and capacity management. Why Lean in healthcare? Alike other industries, healthcare also face problems like safety concerns, capacity and waiting queue management, low level of efficiency and lack of staff motivation. To get rid of these issues and to deliver improved and timely patient care, it is important to base hospital processes on lean synchronization. Lean implementation in hospitals can also prevent hospitals acquired infections, avoidable injuries, death and less recovery time. Traditional practice in hospitals Major time of patients and hospital staff is wasted due to multiple trips made by the patients and the staff members. Once the tests are performed, patient is called for diagnosis after few days. Treatment for the illness may or may not start on the same day. This delay in treatment may cause deterioration in patients condition. Implementation of lean in hospitals will reduce the time taken in treating the patient. According to lean process, a patient must come once and all the processes must be done on the same day e.g. tests are done and the treatment is started soon after the diagnosis from the tests. The process mentioned in the figure consumes unneeded time of patients and hospital staff and this in turn increases the overall cost and risk to life. Avoiding such unnecessary trips eases patient care and reduces the workload on doctors. Lean eliminates waste processes and increases the overall throughput in hospitals. Untitled.png Fig.8 Untitled.png Fig.9 Source: NHS Confederation Principles of lean in healthcare Value: To ensure patient satisfaction, hospitals need to analyze the patients viewpoint as depicted in fig.10. Value is the perception of a patient and can be created when right consultation, test, diagnosis, communication, treatment and after care is provided to the patient. By eliminating waste processes and utilizing resources, staff will be able to concentrate more on patient care. figure3.jpg Fig.10 Source: JWA Inc. Value Stream: Value stream is the process of identifying all the steps that creates value to the patient and eliminating those that creates no value to the patient. Usually hospitals tend to group patients on the basis of clinical similarity. However lean focuses not on similar conditions but similar processes.Fig.11 shows various steps and processes taken to discharge a patient. Untitled.png Fig.11 Source: Flinders Medical Centre In a hospital a value stream is the end-to-end process of caring for a group of patients whose overall care process have enough in common for them to be managed together, irrespective of clinical diagnosis (David Ben-Tovim, 2006). Following are the steps that may not create any value to the patient and should be eliminated: Patients visit to hospital on different days for different tests. Time wasted when patient waits to be seen by the doctor. Unnecessary step of nurse checking the patient. Time wasted in collecting medical equipments and information. Repetition of processes such as diagnostic tests and paperwork. Time consumed in searching medical history of patients. Performing tests that are not required. Fig.12 The factors stated above signify that time is the most valued element for the patient as well as for the hospital staff. To eliminate this waste of time, we first need to identify the cause of this waste. Fig.13 shows the causes that increase the waste in waiting time. Cause and Effect 3.jpg Fig.13 Waste Identification: Waste is anything that does not create value to the patient. Inventory: Holding excess material to avoid unreliable supply is referred as inventory waste in hospitals. Eliminating such waste can reduce cost and time of both the patient as well as the hospitals. Extra Processing: Use of complex equipments to conduct simple tests makes processes large and inflexible and may cause stress to the staff. Overproduction: Unnecessary tests and investigations are referred as overproduction in healthcare industry. These tests must be avoided to save time and cost. Waiting: This is the patient wait time that created due to process or material waiting e.g. patients waiting for test or surgery due to equipment readiness. Transportation: Movement of patients and materials are considered as waste but these cannot be eliminated completely. Processes must be arranged in a manner that steps become sequential and easy to identify. Defects: Defects increase the processes and are caused due to wrong medication or infections. Doing things in a right way will reduce redundancy as well as defects in a process. Movement: Hospital layout must be in a way that it minimizes the repetition of movements by staff and patients e.g. in operation theatres, all equipments must be in reach of the operation table so as to ease the surgeon while doing surgery. Mapping Value Stream: The challenge in value stream is to map exactly the things that actually occur at each stage of patients journey towards recovery, as depicted in fig.14. Lean redesigns this flow to enable seamless movement of patients to the next step without unnecessary work or wait. Fig.14 Fig.15 shows an example of process mapping where it just takes one step on the process of tests and lists each step of work that is currently performed. Amount of time, distance covered and required amount of materials can be added to each such step. It is evident that huge amount of work is being done without creating any value. Involvement of staff during waste identification is usually advised so that the effect of one persons actions is visible to all. Fig.15 Flow: Flow is the process where every patient is worked with single unit at a time and passed to the next step without any delay. Following are few processes that can be redesigned in order to implement lean operations: Concurrent medical problems complicate patient care of an elderly patient who got fractured. Treatment is affected because specialists fail to communicate and coordinate with each other. This problem can be resolved by creating another department called Trauma Unit which creates a single team having all kind of specialists. A standard hand off process between each member will make it possible to identify and address treatment issues regardless of who is on duty. In hospitals, usually same type of operations is conducted on one day and another type of operations on other day. To increase flow through surgeries, it is suggested that few operations of each type should be performed each day. This will reduce waiting time for patients as well as burden on wards. In outpatient department, patients are usually called in the morning at same time say 9a.m. and it is highly likely that not all of them will be treated at the same time and some have to wait till noon. Hence patients must be called according to priority and severity of the problem. Samples are held back in pathology to process them in batches. This leads to increase in wait time for patients. Samples must be tested soon they arrive to the lab. Pull: To create value to the customer, services should be provided in line with the demand. If the demand is for 100 admissions a day, it implies that 100 patients must be discharged on that day to accommodate the demand. To achieve this demand in hospitals all the key processes and interfaces between them must be redesigned. The time required to spend on each activity to achieve output in line with demand is called as Takt Time. It is the time that identifies the speed with which work and materials flow within different departments. In pull system, each patient is treated as one unit at a time and passed to the next level without as soon as it is ready. Fig.16 shows a pull system where each stage of the process pulls the patient towards it. Untitled.png Fig.16 Source: NHS Confederation Perfection: After eliminating all the waste processes without compromising the quality of service, the whole operations process is repeated until perfection is achieved. To achieve perfection in hospitals, following aspects must be taken care of: After Lean Implementation Patient first Wait time unaccepted Reduced errors Existing resources Reduce waste Problems visible to all End to end process Before Lean Service provider first Wait time Errors New resources Reduce cost Problems not visible Functional management Perfection Fig.17 Perfection is achieved by continuous improvement of the operations process. It is therefore necessary to that all the staff members and the hospital management must commit to seek perfection at their level. By creating standard, visible and clear processes, we can develop the foundation of uninterrupted improvement, where every new improvement becomes a landmark or platform for future processes. Advantages of Lean in Hospitals: It is observed that implementation of lean in hospitals have increased efficiency from 15 to 20 percent with safer and improved services using the existing infrastructure, technology and staff. Hospitals across the globe, which have adopted lean philosophy, have benefited from its implementation. According to David Ben-Tovim of Flinders Medical Centre, Australia, the hospital was struggling to survive and was on the verge of meltdown. But after applying lean in their operations process, they managed to earn more profits and decreased the costs. Some important advantages of lean are: Reduction of wait time for patients. Reduced cost and increased savings. Reduction in physical floor space by 30%. Productivity increases from 75% to up to 125% in some cases. Good customer relations. Staff motivation and reduced stress levels. Untitled.png Fig.18 Conclusion The aim of this research was to understand the lean philosophy and to apply lean principles in healthcare industry. It is evident from the study that lean philosophy brings positive results. It improves safety, quality and morale of the staff along with reducing time and costs in the operations process. Lean when enforced in hospital operations can add value to patient care and improve efficiency. Lean principles are generic and can be applied anywhere. If lean principles are applied at each stage of the operations process than huge amount of time can be saved. These principles challenge the whole idea of batching, triage, economies of scale and de-skilling. Results of lean implementation are potentially significant. Lean acts as antidote to traditional approach of performance management. Its emphasis is to put the whole system in a valuable stream. Leans focus is to improve effort on things that weigh importance to patients and hospital staff. It opposes the external benchmarks whic h tend to express the things that are indirectly related to improve patient care. It is also evident from the data that hospitals that have adopted lean in their operations have improved in terms of patient care, costs and time. Hence it can be concluded that implementing lean in any industry will prove to be the best bet.

Summary and Analysis of The Knights Tale Essay -- The Knights Tale E

Summary and Analysis of The Knight's Tale The Knight's Tale, Part I: The Knight begins his tale with the story of a prince named Theseus who married Hippolyta, the queen of Scythia, and brought her and her sister, Emelye, back to Athens with him after conquering her kingdom of Amazons. When Theseus returned home victorious, he became aware that there was a company of women clad in black who knelt at the side of the highway, shrieking. The oldest of the women asked Theseus for pity. She told him that she was once the wife of King Cappaneus who was destroyed at Thebes, and that all of the other women with her lost their husbands. Creon, the lord of the town, simply tossed the dead bodies of the soldiers in a single pile and refused to burn or bury them. Theseus swore vengeance upon Creon, and immediately ordered his armies toward Thebes. Theseus vanquished Creon, and when the soldiers were disposing of the bodies they found two young knights, Arcite and Palamon, two royal cousins, not quite dead. Theseus ordered that they be imprisoned in Athens for lif e. They passed their time imprisoned in a tower in Athens until they saw Emelye in a nearby garden. Both fall immediately in love with her. Palamon compares her to Venus, and he prays for escape from the prison, while Arcite claims that he would rather be dead than not have Emelye. The two bicker over her, each calling the other a traitor. This happened on a day in which Pirithous, a prince and childhood friend of Theseus, came to Athens. Pirithous had known Arcite at Thebes, and on his request Theseus set Arcite free on the promise that Arcite would never be found in Theseus' kingdom. He now had his freedom, but not the ability to pursue Emelye, and lamented the cruelty of fate... ...ructure of the tale gives priority to certain values. Theseus, the arbiter in the conflict between Arcite and Palamon and thus the character in the tale who determines the moral significance of the characters' actions, places great emphasis on honorable codes of conduct; he sets specific rules for the battle meant to ensure justice, and even orders that no soldier shall die in the battle (which then descends from a contest among gladiators to a rough approximation of modern sports). Compounding these values is a tendency toward displays of wealth and power. Each of the final events in the story are punctuated by great pageantry. On the orders of Theseus, the simple duel between Arcite and Palamon transforms into a gala event requiring the construction of a massive coliseum for two armies to wage war on one another, even bringing in the kings of two foreign nations.

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (known as BSNL, India Communications Corporation Limited) is a public sector communications company in India. It is the India's largest telecommunication company with 25.14% market share as on December 31, 2007. Its headquarters are at Bharat Sanchar Bhawan, Harish Chandra Mathur Lane, Janpath, New Delhi. It has the status of Mini-ratna – a status assigned to reputed Public Sector companies in India. BSNL is India's oldest and largest Communication Service Provider (CSP). Currently BSNL has a customer base of 68.5 million (Basic & Mobile telephony). It has footprints throughout India except for the metropolitan cities of Mumbai and New Delhi which are managed by MTNL. As on December 31, 2007 BSNL commanded a customer base of 31.7 million Wireline, 4.1 million CDMA-WLL and 32.7 million GSM Mobile subscribers. BSNL's earnings for the Financial Year ending March 31, 2007 stood at INR 397.15b (US$ 9.67 b) with net profit of INR 78.06b (US$ 1.90 billion). Today, BSNL is India's largest Telco and one of the largest Public Sector Undertaking with estimated market value of $ 100 Billion. The company is planning an IPO with in 6 months to offload 10 % to public. Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. formed in October, 2000, is World's 7th largest Telecommunications Company providing comprehensive range of telecom services in India: Wireline, CDMA mobile, GSM Mobile, Internet, Broadband, Carrier service, MPLS-VPN, VSAT, VoIP services, IN Services etc. Within a span of five years it has become one of the largest public sector unit in India. BSNL has installed Quality Telecom Network in the country and now focusing on improving it, expanding the network, introducing new telecom services with ICT applications in villages and wining customer's confidence. Today, it has about 47.3 million line basic telephone capacity, 4 million WLL capacity, 20.1 Million GSM Capacity, more than 37382 fixed exchanges, 18000 BTS, 287 Satellite Stations, 480196 Rkm of OFC Cable, 63730 Rkm of Microwave Network connecting 602 Districts, 7330 cities/towns and 5.5 Lakhs villages. BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and planned initiatives to bridge the Rural-Urban Digital Divide ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom operator in the country to beat its reach with its wide network giving services in every nook & corner of country and operates across India except Delhi & Mumbai. Whether it is inaccessible areas of Siachen glacier and North-eastern region of the country. BSNL serves its customers with its wide bouquet of telecom services. BSNL is numero uno operator of India in all services in its license area. The company offers vide ranging & most transparent tariff schemes designed to suite every customer. BSNL cellular service, CellOne, has more than 17.8 million cellular customers, garnering 24 percent of all mobile users as its subscribers. That means that almost every fourth mobile user in the country has a BSNL connection. In basic services, BSNL is miles ahead of its rivals, with 35.1 million Basic Phone subscribers i.e. 85 per cent share of the subscriber base and 92 percent share in revenue terms. BSNL has more than 2.5 million WLL subscribers and 2.5 million Internet Customers who access Internet through various modes viz. Dial-up, Leased Line, DIAS, Account Less Internet(CLI). BSNL has been adjudged as the NUMBER ONE ISP in the country. BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP infrastructure that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through the same Backbone and Broadband Access Network. At present there are 0.6 million DataOne broadband customers. The company has vast experience in Planning, Installation, network integration and Maintenance of Switching & Transmission Networks and also has a world class ISO 9000 certified Telecom Training Institute. Scaling new heights of success, the present turnover of BSNL is more than Rs.351,820 million (US $ 8 billion) with net profit to the tune of Rs.99,390 million (US $ 2.26 billion) for last financial year. The infrastructure asset on telephone alone is worth about Rs.630,000 million (US $ 14.37 billion). BSNL plans to expand its customer base from present 47 millions lines to 125 million lines by December 2007 and infrastructure investment plan to the tune of Rs. 733 crores (US$ 16.67 million) in the next three years. The turnover, nationwide coverage, reach, comprehensive range of telecom services and the desire to excel has made BSNL the No. 1 Telecom Company of India. History The foundation of Telecom Network in India was laid by the British sometime in 19th century. The history of BSNL is linked with the beginning of Telecom in India. In 19th century and for almost entire 20th century, the Telecom in India was operated as a Government of India wing. Earlier it was part of erstwhile Post & Telegraph Department (P&T). In 1975 the Department of Telecom (DoT) was separated from P&T. DoT was responsible for running of Telecom services in entire country until 1985 when Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) was carved out of DoT to run the telecom services of Delhi and Mumbai. It is a well known fact that BSNL was carved out of Department of Telecom to provide level playing field to private telecoms. Subsequently in 1990s the telecom sector was opened up by the Government for Private investment, therefore it became necessary to separate the Government's policy wing from Operations wing. The Government of India corporatised the operations wing of DoT on October 01, 2000 and named it as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL).BSNL operates as a public sector.

Elisa Allen: A Mystified Identity Essay

John Steinbeck’s short story â€Å"The Chrysanthemums† is centered on the protagonist named Elisa Allen. The vivid portrayal of her character in different parts of the story makes the reader wonder who she really is. Steinbeck started by portraying her as a strong and knowledgeable gardener, with a sense of masculinity, following which she is portrayed as someone who yearns for sexual attention in her sensual encounter with the tinker, and concluded with her being described as a beautiful, feminine lady, and then back to her masculine self all within a span of a few hours. The evolution in the expressions, emotions, and the portrayal of Elisa Allen is an important element of Steinbeck’s â€Å"The Chyrsanthemums. † Firstly, Elisa Allen is described and presented in a very masculine manner. The words â€Å"strong†, â€Å"a man’s black hat† and â€Å"heavy leather gloves† showcase the masculinity. Additionally, her features described as, â€Å"her face was eager and mature and handsome†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦over-powerful. † lend substance to her masculinity. Interestingly, this description of Elisa is in stark contrast to the societal perception of females in that era who are meant to be more feminine. The fact that she is she is thirty five years old and has no children also de-emphasizes her femininity. However, this presentation of masculinity augurs well with her acuity for business which is demonstrated in her interest in knowing more about the conversation of her husband, Henry Allen with the men in business suits. Also, her negotiation skills with the tinker showcase the business acuity of Elisa that has gone unnoticed by Henry. The societal norms have dictated that she carry out her role as a gardener with penchant. As a result, Elisa devotes all of her energy to maintaining her house and garden. Although she rightly brags about her green thumb, Elisa’s connection to nature seems rather coerced and not something that comes as naturally as she claims. She knows a great deal about plants, most likely because as a woman, gardening is the only thing she has to think about. This constant tussle between her femininity and her masculinity lend an interesting insight into Elisa’s character. Next, Elisa is been demonstrated as a woman who lives an unsatisfying, under stimulated and frustrated life who looks to the tinker for a stimulating conversation and even sex. Her physical attraction to the tinker and her flirtatious, witty conversation with him bring out the poet in Elisa. The phrases, â€Å"she shakes out her dark pretty hair and with her eyes shining, she admits the stranger into her yard. She strips off her protective gloves†, â€Å"she looks deep into his eyes, searchingly† and â€Å"She was kneeling on the ground looking up at him. Her breast swelled passionately. † describe the sensual encounter of Elisa with the tinker. During this encounter, there is also evidence of how unsatisfied Elisa is with her life when she says the following, â€Å"I’ve never lived as you do, but I know what you mean. When the night is dark—why, the stars are sharp-pointed, and there’s quiet. Why, you rise up and up! Every pointed star gets driven into your body. It’s like that. Hot and sharp and—lovely. † This statement also showcases the poet in Elisa. Besides the poetic conversation, it symbolizes the level of incompleteness in her life. It seemed that she got carried away in the heat of the moment, and realized at a later point and felt ashamed of what she did and had been saying. After the sensual encounter with the tinker, the femininity is showcased of Elisa is showcased at its fullest by the narrator. Firstly, when she tries to dress up and present herself as a beautiful lady. This is seen in the following narration of the scenario, â€Å"After a while she began to dress, slowly. She put on her newest underclothing and her nicest stockings and the dress which was the symbol of her prettiness. She worked carefully on her hair, penciled her eyebrows and rouged her lips. † Following the dressing up, and showing up in front of Henry, the conversation that the couple have is nothing less than hilarious. Evidently, Henry is not used to seeing Elisa dress up and presents her in the feminine manner that she did. The banter that takes place between Henry and Elisa, especially when describing her as â€Å"strong and happy† and â€Å"You look strong enough to break a calf over your knee, happy enough to eat it like a watermelon† was amusing. This conversation clearly showed that Henry did not know how to react to Elisa’s femininity, supporting the fact that Elisa could have been unsatisfied with her current relationship with Henry, and hence seeking an escape in her encounter with the tinker who seemed to be more receptive and appreciative to her. However, the conversation that took place while in the caravan negated the short burst of feminism in Elisa and was overpowered with a sense of masculinity by the topics of their conversation which included: â€Å"wine over dinner,† and â€Å"women going to fights. † This could be because of the realization that nothing has changed. She is still the same lady who was gardening a few hours ago. The tinker, despite showing interest and stimulating her, was only concerned in his profit, and was manipulative to say the least. Interestingly, in the final sentence of the story, the narrator describes Elisa as a â€Å"weak, old woman. † In conclusion, the narration has been so vivid that the reader could see the emotions and the constant tussle that Elisa faces as a woman and a wife. Her life as a woman has been confined to her duties as a gardener, with no affection and love been shown by her husband Henry. This incompleteness in her life leads her to seek solace in her encounter with the tinker where she sees a ray of hope to experience her feminine self. However, this feel-good experience is short-lived when she says her chrysanthemums that she gifted to the tinker lying on the road. This shattered her dreams of being a free woman, and brings her back to reality. The reality of course is that she is confined to her reserved, unfulfilling, monotonous life as a wife with no children. The pace at which she experienced the highs and lows of her life, in a span of a few hours is note-worthy and adds to the literary value of Steinbeck’s â€Å"The Chrysanthemums. †

CASE WRITE-UPS Essays - Finance, Money, Economy, Financial Services

CASE WRITE-UPS Essays - Finance, Money, Economy, Financial Services CASE WRITE-UPS Write an executive summary focusing your analysis on the principal issues of the case. The audience is a mid-level executive; time is short and they might not read the whole work, so lead with the meat of your conclusion. Assume your audience is familiar with the companies, principals, and environment: focus on the problem and your solution. Presentation matters, so formal language and no typos. Proof read your work. Please present your solution to the main issue, discuss any key alternatives and why they were rejected, and significant risks involved with the solution (or other unknown factors that could alter the analysis). Length should target one single spaced page, no smaller than 11 pt. font, and certainly be no longer than two pages. If charts or calculations are needed, they may be included as an appendix (only text will count to the page limit, but don't go overboard). Analysing a Strategy Case Study - Some Tips Copyright: Adrian Haberberg and the University of Westminster, 1998 Give yourself time to assimilate a case The longer that a case study is given to "sink in" to your subconscious, the deeper the understanding you will get and the better your answers will be. Read the case material for the first time as soon as you have been allocated it as an assignment or seminar example. Get a general impression: Which organisations and industries does it relate to? Is the organisation doing well or badly now, and how has it performed in the past? Is it a company that has an unbroken record of success? Or a successful company that has fallen on hard times? What are the main issues and choices confronting the company? Is it in an expanding industry, or a maturing one? Are customer needs changing? Does the firm confront a variety of opportunities? Or is there a particular business decision which the case is oriented towards? What information is there in the case, as tables and annexes? Analyse thoroughly, and use what you have been learning Put the case aside for a few days before reading it a second time. Then, start to analyse it seriously: Look at the development of the organisation over time. What strategies has it pursued? Which have succeeded and which have failed? Which are the types of environment where it has been able to succeed, and in which types has it had problems? Use the tools and techniques of strategic management theory, to see what insights they give you. What is the nature of the competitive environment? What kind of strategic resources does the organisation have - and which does it lack? How successful has the organisation been - and how do you know? Look carefully at all the tables, annexes and appendices. Why are they there? What information is the case writer trying to get you to get out of them? If there are numerical data in the case - analyse them . What trends over time do they show? What ratios can you use to analyse performance in areas that are important to the organisation ? Then, if you have time, put the case aside again for a day or two, and let all this sink in. You may at this stage like to use SWOT analysis as a framework for a preliminary analysis of your thinking. But beware - SWOT analysis is not sufficiently precise to feature in a good final report. Relate your analysis to the question Now start to relate the analysis to the task or question you h ave been set. What elements of the strategic analysis do you require to carry out the task, and how do they relate to it? Is there further information or analysis that you need? Be logical and critical Think hard about your conclusions and recommendations. Have you really demonstrated them, backing up your reasoning with hard evidence (events and results) from the case study? Have you allowed yourself to be swayed by the opinions of the organisation's own managers? They have a vested interest in showing their actions in the best possible light. You do not have to agree. Do the facts support their claims of success, or their excuses for failure?

Avoid War essays

Avoid War essays In the years 1793-1810 war with England and France was avoided. America was at a time where they had to choose their friends from their enemies. By doing so they tried to avoid war. The reason was because they had an enormous debt to pay. The war between France and America was avoided because of the Franco-American Accord of 1800 and the war between America and England was avoided because treaties were signed such as Jays treaty and acts were passed such as the Alien Enemies Act. Tension was breaking out between France and America because of Jays Treaty. This caused problems because France thought America was siding with Great Britain. In Jay's Treaty with Great Britain (1795) it was agreed that enemy property on neutral ships should be confiscated and that neutral property on enemy ships was allowed. The French saw Jay's Treaty as a violation of the treaty of 1778, a betrayal by the United States that France had helped to free and saw the United States as now allied with Britain. The French passed new laws affecting American trade. This is how tension grew more with France, however decreased with Britain. Adams sent three commissioners to Paris to avoid a war. The French foreign minister demanded a large bribe to initiate talks and an American loan of $12 million. This was known as the XYZ Affair. This diplomatic incident in 1789 caused Congress to upgrade the navy, which was weak since the Revolutionary War. Forty new ships were built from funds. In 1798, an undeclared naval war between the United States and France erupted. This was known as the Quasi-War. What put a stop to all this nonsense between these friendly nations was the Franco-American Accord of 1800. This was a settlement reached with France that brought an alliance. The United States had to surrender all claims against the French for damages done to American shipping during the Quasi-War. This brought a closer relationship with France and ended all t...

Pa Element or Protactinium Facts

Pa Element or Protactinium Facts Protactinium is a radioactive element predicted to exist in 1871 by Mendeleev, although it was not discovered until 1917 or isolated until 1934. The element has atomic number 91 and element symbol Pa. Like most elements on the periodic table, protactinium is a silver-colored metal. However, the metal is dangerous to handle because it and its compounds are both toxic and radioactive. Here are useful and interesting Pa element facts: Name: Protactinium (previously brevium and then protoactinium, but the IUPAC shortened the name to protactinium in 1949 to make the element name easier to pronounce) Atomic Number: 91 Symbol: Pa Atomic Weight: 231.03588 Discovery: Fajans Gohring 1913; Fredrich Soddy, John Cranston, Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner 1917 (England/France). Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existed of an element between thorium and uranium on the periodic table. However, the actinide group was not known at that time. William Crookes isolated protactinium from uranium in 1900, but he was unable to characterize it, so does not get credit for discovery. Protactinium was not isolated as a pure element until 1934 by  Aristid von Grosse. Electron Configuration: [Rn] 7s2 5f2 6d1 Word Origin: Greek protos, meaning first. Fajans and Gohring in 1913 named the element brevium, because the isotope they discovered, Pa-234, was short-lived. When Pa-231 was identified by Hahn and Meitner in 1918, the name protoactinium was adopted because this name was considered to be more consistent with the characteristics of the most abundant isotope (protactinium forms actinium when it radioactively decays). In 1949, the name protoactinium was shortened to protactinium. Isotopes: Protactinium has 13 isotopes. The most common isotope is Pa-231, which has a half-life of 32,500 years. The first isotope to be discovered was Pa-234, which was also called UX2. Pa-234 is a short-lived member of the naturally occurring U-238 decay series. The longer-lived isotope, Pa-231, was identified by Hahn and Meitner in 1918. Properties: The atomic weight of protactinium is 231.0359, its melting point is 1600 °C, specific gravity has been calculated to be 15.37, with a valence of 4 or 5. Protactinium has a bright metallic luster which is retained for a while in air. The element is superconductive below 1.4K. Several protactinium compounds are known, some of which are colored. Protactinium is an alpha emitter (5.0 MeV) and is a radiological hazard which requires special handling. Protactinium is one of the rarest and most expensive naturally occurring elements. Sources:  The element occurs in pitchblende to the extent of about 1 part Pa-231 to 10 million parts ore. In general, Pa only occurs at a concentration of a few parts per trillion in the Earths crust. While originally isolated from uranium ores, today protactinium is made as a fission intermediate in thorium high-temperature nuclear reactors. Other Interesting Protactinium Facts In solution, the 5 oxidation state quickly combines with hydroxide ions to form (radioactive) hydroxy-oxide solids that stick to the surface of the container.Protactinium has no stable isotopes.Handling of protactinium is similar to that of plutonium, due to its potent radioactivity.Even if it was not radioactive, protactinium would present a health risk because the element is also a toxic metal.The largest amount of protactinium obtained to date was 125 grams, which the Great Britain Atomic Energy Authority extracted from 60 tons of nuclear waste.Although protactinium has few uses aside from research purposes, it may be combined with the isotope thorium-230 to date marine sediments.The estimated cost of one gram of protactinium is about $280. Element Classification: Radioactive Rare Earth (Actinide) Density (g/cc): 15.37 Melting Point (K): 2113 Boiling Point (K): 4300 Appearance: silvery-white, radioactive metal Atomic Radius (pm): 161 Atomic Volume (cc/mol): 15.0 Ionic Radius: 89 (5e) 113 (3e) Specific Heat (20 °C J/g mol): 0.121 Fusion Heat (kJ/mol): 16.7 Evaporation Heat (kJ/mol): 481.2 Pauling Negativity Number: 1.5 Oxidation States: 5, 4 Lattice Structure: Tetragonal Lattice Constant (Ã…): 3.920 Sources Emsley, John (2011).  Natures building blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960563-7.Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).  Chemistry of the Elements  (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.Hammond, C. R. (2004). The Elements, in  Handbook of Chemistry and Physics  (81st ed.). CRC press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.Weast, Robert (1984).  CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4. Return to the Periodic Table

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act Research Paper

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act - Research Paper Example Under the new law, children are no longer denied of the coverage based on pre-existing conditions (NCSL, 2012). They will be considered beneficiaries of parents until they will reach the age of 26. The healthcare reform has nationalized its system at the cost of $940 billion (NCSL, 2012). Such amount is exacted from budget cuts, taxation and government funding (Gravelle, 2010). On a positive note, it was perceived to have reduced the national fiscal deficiency by $1.2 trillion (NCSL, 2012). This was perceived as the strategic resolution to provide remedy to the serious concern about 32 million Americans who have no health insurance (NCSL, 2012) notwithstanding critique from other stakeholders that changes will also potentially impact to medicare system and the need for hospitals to cope with the increasing demand of health consumers as budget for national services are rationalized by the state. Healthcare subscribers still need to realize though that preventive health measure remains necessary since Obamacare program is designed as a government’s response to bridge the gaps on financial resources in case of hospitalization. Its appreciable still to note that central to this healthcare reform is the gender non-discrimination clause in its policy; restriction enforced to pre-need companies to make them customer-centered in providing insurance benefits; obliging insurance companies to justify any increase of insurance fees; availability of option to avail healthcare in accordance to their income bracket and nature of employment (NCSL, 2012). The co-payments for domestic violence screening, birth control and related expenses are no longer allowed (NCSL, 2012). Annual and lifetime limits for caring for the patients are already removed and micro-businesses will enjoy tax credits if their workers are afforded with insurance. Notwithstanding these positive reforms, there are still those who categorized that the Obamacare remains favorable to the affluent or the moneyed middle class who could save more from the healthcare benefits. They opined that there are still about 25% of entrepreneurs that are uninsured, 50% are dependent on their respective family, and there are about 60% with private insurance enjoy incomes at about 400% above the poverty level (NCSL, 2012). These affluent will qualify for tax credits other than the fact that it can subsidize healthcare to 83% small business owners that are currently considered not insured (NCSL, 2012). Department of Healthcare and Family expectations of Obama care for state of Illinois The Institute of Medicine (IOM) have already provided directives for the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)Â  pertaining to essential benefits of mandatory insurance under the health reform law's insurance exchanges (NCSL, 2012). Medical experts observed that the report and directive did not listed specific medical services to be covered by premiums of insurers but it recommended a framework to define the minimum benefits that can be generated under the insurance policy (NCSL, 2012). DoH acknowledged that the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) was the most comprehensive changes to the provision of health insurance since the development of Medicare and Medicaid by requiring all Americans to have health insurance by 2016 (NCSL, 2012).

Apply the transtheoretical Model of Change to Smoking cessation Essay

Apply the transtheoretical Model of Change to Smoking cessation program or intervention - Essay Example Although several quarters have highlighted weaknesses of the program, the general features are positive. The major focus of the exercise will be on stages of this model, how each can be applied to stop smoking and thereafter, a general critique. The TMC supports the idea that behavior change evolves rather than a perception that it can be revolutionized. This is an implication that the model is a process that is characterized by stages of acceptance to the ultimate cessation especially for smokers. The first one is the pre contemplation stage to the ultimate maintenance stage as illustrated by DiClemente et al (2002). At this point, the person is probably at the denial stage where thy have little or not plans to quit. Smoking to them is part of life and smoking is used for leisure, stress relieve or simply the addictive charm. At this point the person has zero motivation to quit although they are aware of the practice posses to their health. In the pre-contempation stage, the smoking cessation program implementers such as family members may only give minimal help to the individual through persuasive counseling. The decision to change the behavior only comes from within the individual. This is the stage where an individual is ready to act and begin the cessation program. As matter of fact, the individual may be projecting to start the program in six month’s time. The level of awareness of the individual on the effect of drugs is high (DiClemente et al., 2002). They understand the pros and cons of smoking and they believe that the process is possible. The program of cessation can be effective if the addicts can be informed of possible challenges such as relapses. Many smokers in the world today are in this stage because the vast majority is considering quitting. Here, the person is preparing to hit the road and begin the journey to full recovery. Most of the addicts are encouraged to begin with mental preparation for the program. It is common to find them

Siemens Social Performance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Siemens Social Performance - Essay Example Siemens’ network has involved in different social and environmental aspects and the always act as a rich asset to different stakeholders in the business. They are socially committed and always remain the frontrunner in keeping the society safe and the environment hazard free. This international firm has put their investments in the ecological shelter and the industrial protection to preserve their potential feasibility and the extensive period of prosperity. They have also developed their pioneering machinery and tools for the management of wastewater to relieve the public of the problems associated with scarcity of water. â€Å"Siemens has developed alternating-current drive systems for the heavy trucks that transport the material at opencast mines. They ensure that diesel engines run within their optimal speed ranges. Compared with conventional diesel drives, these diesel-electric drive systems not only have a lower environmental impact, but also save fuel and cut operating costs. Gearless drive systems (GD) also help to reduce energy consumption.† (Environmental Issues and Social Aspects Make New Investments Necessary in Mining Area 2010). Currently, they have new programs like Siemens Generation21 and Siemens Caring Hands intended to serve the community in different ways. Siemens Generation21 is targeted for the education of youth all over the world to provide them a bright future. With these, they are helping the students with learning materials, research funds, and other training programs. Siemens have developed the Caring Hands program to help the public when they require it most through the contributions and social supports. â€Å"It covers a wide scope of activities including volunteering, disaster relief, social sponsorship, and supporting or donating funds to good causes.† (Corporate Social Responsibility

Stabilization Wedges in the Organization Assignment

Stabilization Wedges in the Organization - Assignment Example The earth could also encounter increasing sea level from melting cover of ice from the West Antarctic ice and Greenland glaciers and deterioration of the ocean’s thermohaline movement that aids in redistribution of the planet’s high temperature and hot Western Europe. It is possible to reduce the emissions of the carbon dioxide for the next 50 years if people are able to keep these emissions flat. This route is intended to keep carbon dioxide under one thousand two hundred billion tons (ppm). This kind of figure will permit individuals to expect worse consequence of climate change. Maintaining releases flat will need reducing predictable carbon production by about 7 billion tons per annum by two thousand and fifty-five. This will help in maintaining a total of one hundred and seventy-five billion tons of carbon from flowing to the atmosphere (Alley, pp 43). The carbon reserves are collectively known as stabilization triangle. The conformist knowledge has been that only radical new expertise like nuclear fusion can permit such large release cuts. CMI set out to measure the blow that could be made by a collection of accessible technologies organized on a huge Scale. To make sure that the crisis is more understandable it is divided into seven wedges. Each wedge is used to represent how carbon emission can be reduced to so as not to grow to any further tons by the year 2055 (Socolow & Pacala PP 23). The wedges can stand for methods of making energy that has reduced emissions of carbon dioxide. They can also be used to store carbon dioxide at low levels that cannot flow into the atmosphere. A wedge that will reduce emissions can be attained if the fuel efficiency of all the vehicles predictable for 2055 were two times from 30 mpg to 60 mpg.  

Health Promotion and Evidence Based Practice Assignment

Health Promotion and Evidence Based Practice - Assignment Example Alcohol and drug abuse are among the foremost causes of disability and demise in North Carolina. Alcohol and substance abuse dependence are both problems in themselves and contributors to other health problems. For example, people under the influence of substance abuse are at a risk of premature deaths. Other health problems associated with substance abuse include depressions, mental health disorders, interpersonal relation, poor school or workplace functioning and low overall sense of wellbeing. However, these health hazards are preventable risk factors (Andrews & National Research Council, 1991). For the prevention of drug substance abuse and the improvement of mental health, there are evidenced priority recommendations. According to the North Carolina prevention plan, priority number one is the development and implementation of a comprehensive plan for substance abuse. To be included in the plan are recommendations to beer and wine taxation. With expensive beer and wine, it will n ot be easily affordable to the addicted individuals (Hastings et al, 2010). Together with increasing tax rates on beer and wines, substance abuse prevention also requires community outreach. Therefore, a comprehensive community based programs for prevention of substance use and abuse is a sizeable community outreach strategy. The implementation of this community based prevention plan should include a team that provides emotional care and nutritional health to the victims and subjects of the program (Hastings et al, 2010). The article â€Å"prevention issues brief final in 2010† clearly outlines the prevention strategies and its elements. The evidence based prevention strategies shows a degree of effectiveness in decreasing the rate of substance use and abuse. Nevertheless, they also have several positive impacts like self -identification, improved sense of self -wellbeing, reduced levels of depreciation and improved health conditions. For all the evidence based prevention str ategies on substance use and abuse, youths should be the main target since their developing brain is susceptible damage by alcohol and others substances (Hastings et al, 2010). The strategies or action steps that form the evidence-based prevention of substance use and abuse and for improvement of mental health include the following. The activity begins from the individuals. Guidance and counseling provision to individuals to be substance use abuse free and in case of any mental disorder seek professional help. Again, from the individuals, home prevention is a strong evidence strategy. Parents should take the initiative to talk to their children about substance abuse dangers. (Hastings et al, 2010). To the victims of substance abuse clinical preventive measures like screening, brief intervention and treatment in case of any health problem is fundamental. Keeping the public up-to-date on these evidence-based clinical preventive measures will ensure that people are aware of where to go to find help (North Carolina Institute of Medicine & North Carolina, 2009). In worksites and offices, wellness programs for substance abuse will keep these people informed. In addition to the other programs, offering insurance programs to the community on incidences of substance abu

Leadership Phase 1 individual Project 1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Leadership Phase 1 individual Project 1 - Essay Example Similarly in case of change the situational leader will concentrate on the people or his subjects who cannot adjust themselves to change. According to Ken Blancard the situational leader will analyses the needs of the situation dealt by him and his team. This will be the first step in adopting him and his team to the situation. After analyzing the situation he decides on the style of leadership. This has been applied with different types of managers at different levels. The situational model is simple to understand and can be applied in various environments. Not only to the managers, can the situational model of leadership be applied universally to any person in work and at home? The leadership behavior depends on the strengths of the leader. The strength of the leader decides the direction and the support received by him from his supporters and vice versa. In this manner the style I select is about direction the leader gives to the followers and the support he receives from them. In the direction the training is involved and in the support of the followers, the delegation is involved. This involves problem solving, which can be termed as an important aspect in the course of leadership. The style of leadership decides the development level. As the leadership style depends on the followers it is up to the leader to mould them according to the style. This can increase the development level of the follower by the leader. The leader should show competence, commitment to make the followers increase their development levels according to the styles of the leader. Here the styles are direction and support. The followers must be in a position to support the leader an d this position shall arise due to activities and strength of leader. The direction and support styles will suit the situational leadership because the development levels of the followers are situational and should vary with changes they face. The situational model I chose will be comfortable to me

Health Promotion and Evidence Based Practice Assignment

Health Promotion and Evidence Based Practice - Assignment Example Alcohol and drug abuse are among the foremost causes of disability and demise in North Carolina. Alcohol and substance abuse dependence are both problems in themselves and contributors to other health problems. For example, people under the influence of substance abuse are at a risk of premature deaths. Other health problems associated with substance abuse include depressions, mental health disorders, interpersonal relation, poor school or workplace functioning and low overall sense of wellbeing. However, these health hazards are preventable risk factors (Andrews & National Research Council, 1991). For the prevention of drug substance abuse and the improvement of mental health, there are evidenced priority recommendations. According to the North Carolina prevention plan, priority number one is the development and implementation of a comprehensive plan for substance abuse. To be included in the plan are recommendations to beer and wine taxation. With expensive beer and wine, it will n ot be easily affordable to the addicted individuals (Hastings et al, 2010). Together with increasing tax rates on beer and wines, substance abuse prevention also requires community outreach. Therefore, a comprehensive community based programs for prevention of substance use and abuse is a sizeable community outreach strategy. The implementation of this community based prevention plan should include a team that provides emotional care and nutritional health to the victims and subjects of the program (Hastings et al, 2010). The article â€Å"prevention issues brief final in 2010† clearly outlines the prevention strategies and its elements. The evidence based prevention strategies shows a degree of effectiveness in decreasing the rate of substance use and abuse. Nevertheless, they also have several positive impacts like self -identification, improved sense of self -wellbeing, reduced levels of depreciation and improved health conditions. For all the evidence based prevention str ategies on substance use and abuse, youths should be the main target since their developing brain is susceptible damage by alcohol and others substances (Hastings et al, 2010). The strategies or action steps that form the evidence-based prevention of substance use and abuse and for improvement of mental health include the following. The activity begins from the individuals. Guidance and counseling provision to individuals to be substance use abuse free and in case of any mental disorder seek professional help. Again, from the individuals, home prevention is a strong evidence strategy. Parents should take the initiative to talk to their children about substance abuse dangers. (Hastings et al, 2010). To the victims of substance abuse clinical preventive measures like screening, brief intervention and treatment in case of any health problem is fundamental. Keeping the public up-to-date on these evidence-based clinical preventive measures will ensure that people are aware of where to go to find help (North Carolina Institute of Medicine & North Carolina, 2009). In worksites and offices, wellness programs for substance abuse will keep these people informed. In addition to the other programs, offering insurance programs to the community on incidences of substance abu

Sources of Funds for Businesses Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Sources of Funds for Businesses - Assignment Example Owners’ investment: - This is funds generated from the owner's savings, they are pillars of many small businesses.   Owner’s investments are used in most cases where your business doesn't have the assets to invest. Retained earnings:-This source of funds is only obtainable for a business which has been in operation for more than one year. It’s an easy source of internal funding because this is when returns made are reinvested back into the business. It’s a medium to a long-term source of funds. Debt Collection: - A business can increase its funding by collecting debts from their debtors, however not all business has debtors thus this form is not applicable to all businesses. It’s a short-term source of funding a business. Bank Overdraft:-This is where a financial institution permits an entity to take out additional cash than it has in its savings. This means that a company may still write cheques even with no money in their accounts. It’s a short-term source of funds and can be very expensive if used over longer periods (Gregoriou, Kooli & Kraussll, 2007). Hire Purchase:-This technique allows a business to get assets without the necessity to pay larger amounts. Involves paying the first deposit and even payments for a certain period; it’s a medium-term source of funds Mortgage:-This is a credit held on the property, payable in installments over a particular period of time usually 25 years. After the final payment, a business will officially own the property. It’s a long-term source of funds. Corporations can rely on both internal and external sources of funds because both have their advantages and disadvantages. However, many corporations today rely on external funds due to the following reasons Most business needs finances to grow. Even companies with greater returns cannot rely only on reinvested earnings to finance their operations. Hence, a business is required to secure bank loans, partner with other companies or any other way to raise external funds. (Smart, Megginson & Graham, 2010).  

Theories of Leadership in Schools

Theories of Leadership in Schools CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Schools organizations are involved into reform, change, and improvement efforts and process stemming from a desire for renewal, gaps in performance results, advancements in knowledge, mandates, and other societal deficits where responsibility has been delegated to schools (Evans, 1996). According to Fullan (2000) and Mai (2004) the problem for school organizations seeking to effectively improve or change centers on what behaviors, strategies, or structures contribute positively to organizational learning and renewal in a way the produces the capacity for sustainability in order to make a positive difference for students. Foster (2001) discussed that while the majority of past theories on school leadership have focused upon the capabilities of one individual, this accepted belief of a solitary leader is now being challenged as traditional models of leadership and organizational change are being analyzed. Thus, instead of viewing leadership as a role for one person, leadership is now being redefined as a practice shared among many individuals (Harris, 2003). Distributed leadership involved with creating joint responsibility for leadership activities. Interesting is the focus on shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Shared leadership is used as synonym for democratic leadership, and collaborative leadership. Practitioners use it to create effective school leadership, or improving schools, or to study leadership. Building leadership capacity means broad-based, skillful involvement in the work of leadership. There is a need of significant number of skillful teacher leaders who understood the shared vision in the school, and are able to carry it out. Also the work involves reflection, inquiry, conversations and focused action professional behaviors that are an integral part of daily work. Understandings and skillfulness involve more than the knowledge of an innovation. The skillfulness focused is those skills of leadership that allow other teachers to capture the imagination of their colleagues, enable them to negotiate real changes in schools and negotiate any conflicts that arise in organization (Harris and Lamber, 2003). In order to build leadership capacity for school improvement the U.K. Open University suggested the following main characteristics: Surface, clarity and define values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions and experiences ; inquire into practice; construct meaning and knowledge ; frame action and develop implementation plans. The Cyprus Educational System is open to a wide range of influences, which create the need for change and improvement. The strategy of the Ministry of Education in Cyprus is to proceed with the Educational Reform Program in order to fully achieve the goal of an all inclusive, democratic and human school, which embraces all students equally and provides education to each and every pupil according to his/her needs. Educational Reform was launched in January 2005, following a report by a Committee of seven academics which identified the weaknesses of Cyprus Educational System and the areas in need of reform. UNESCOs Report at the end of 90s come to the summarized conclusion that â€Å"The administrative system of governing and monitoring of the Ministry of Education and Culture remains strictly centralized, bureaucratic and inflexible.† The main goal is to restructuring of Ministry of Education and Culture by modernize the organizational structure for all the departments. School Reform, Change and Improvement A lot of efforts about improving education have become national and international in scope, beginning in 1983 in USA with â€Å"A Nation at Risk† and recently â€Å"No Child Left Behind† federal legislation, (2001). Elmore (2002) explains that is not enough to focus solely on these new reform standards requirements. Continuing school improvement for all students achievement will need to develop and sustain a school climate where everyone is committed to learning and everyone is accountable for pupil achievement. Sheppard (2003) proposed that school leadership is critical for improving pupil achievement. Leithwood and Riehl (2003) according to their research findings concluded that leadership has a significant effect on student learning, curriculum and teacher instruction. Some researchers like Hallinger and Heck(1998) suggest that school survival today is depending of the effective leadership that can guide schools through the challenges of improving student achievement . Fullan (2001), Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) support that effective leadership at all levels of the educational system is critical. Also organizations cannot flourish on the actions of the top leaders alone. They suggested that schools need many leaders at many levels. Neuman and Simmons (2000) discussed that leadership is the job of the whole educational community, and learning becomes the focus and primary value for every member. Whilst the quality of teaching strongly influences levels of pupil motivation and achievement, it has been consistently argued that the quality of leadership matters in defining the motivation of teachers and the quality of teaching in the classroom (Fullan, 2001; Sergiovanni, 2001) Recent studies of effective leadership have described that authority to lead can be dispersed within the school in between and among people (MacBeath, 1998; Day, Harris and Hadfield, 200; Harris, 2002). Leadership is actually separated from person, role and status and is primarily concerned with the relationships and the connections among individuals within a school. Distributed, shared or teacher leadership is well developed and grounded in research evidence. Distributed Leadership implies a redistribution of power and re-alignment of authority within the school. Main goal is the creation of the conditions in which people work together and learn together. By giving authority to teachers and empowering them to lead leadership is emergent rather than as a fixed phenomenon. Literature review about Leadership consists of a number of leadership theories, styles and approaches. The most of these theories on school leadership have focused on individual capabilities. Recently this believes are challenged because of organizational changes and reform in our educational system. Leadership is now being re-defined as a practice distributed among many individuals (Harris, 2003). I believe that today the concept of distributed leadership is receiving much attention and growing empirical support (Spillane, 2006). The focus is oriented not upon the characteristics of the leader but upon creating the climate for shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Spillane and Diamond (2007) discussed that distributed leadership is used as a synonym for democratic leadership, shared leadership, and collaborative leadership. In many cases distributed leadership is used to create effective school leadership, others use it for improving schools, and some for leadership research. In order to contribute to the necessary transformation of our schools, school improvement demands learning that is encourages lifelong personal and social experience. The teacher needs to feel that not only can she/he believe in school improvement, but that she/he is making her/him own contribution, and is involved in the improvement process. Improvement is something no-one would want to avoid, like good food. We argue that school improvement must be related to the re-examination of the purposes of schools in the future. The globalization of economic activity has transcended national boundaries and has created unprecedented social relations mediated through global economic practices. School improvement strategies need to move away from organizational issues and take more account of the voices of those most involved the young people themselves as well as their teachers. Today in many countries like USA schools and states emphasize on school reform and improvement by consider those factors that influence the implementation and sustainability of improvement efforts (Sergiovanni, 2006; Hall and Hord, 2006). According to the writers school improvement initiatives demand resources like additional personnel, time, money, staff development, instruments and space. For example Sergiovanni (2006) suggested that schools must institutionalize the allotment of resources to provide for the longevity of the school improvement initiative. Another main resource element necessary for school system is the school culture. School culture influences the degree to which an improvement initiative is successfully implemented (Jazzar Algozzine, 2006). Leadership Practices of Effective Head Fullan (2003) examined that principals are often the key to school improvement efforts and also he identified barriers to improvement often noted by school heads. It is important when school improvement and reform initiative is implemented from the state level, building managers must be able to encourage and motivate their staff to successfully implement the initiative. (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstron, 2004). School head is a key element for school improvement efforts regardless of system imposed barriers such as not clearly identifying the heads responsibilities and lack of leadership training provided for school principals. Most important step for improvement implementation in schools is the creations of supporting culture environment for change. Heads need to establish such cultures in the following situations: In developing of policies and procedures which facilitate the improvement process. By establishment of patterns so that individuals can work together as they strive for improvement. By focusing on collaborative relationships with numbers of staff and other administrators. By teacher development and learning activities focused on the improvement initiative. By assessment of the procedures in order to evaluate and monitor improvement sequences of actions. By discussing any success according the improvement implementation. By motivate staff members for their success as they engage in improvement. The literature on effective leadership emphasize on those essential characteristics for leading school improvement. Especially Kouzes and Posner (2002a) have conducted research on the practices and skill of effective leaders by identified five practices and ten corresponding commitments that all leaders demonstrate. Kouzes and Posner (2000) practices are presented by Balcerek (1999, p.4) in a table of leadership model. Ten Commitments of Leadership Practices Commitments Model the Way 1 Find your voice by clarifying your personal values 2 Set the example by aligning actions with shared values Inspire a Shared Vision 3 Envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities 4 Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations Challenge the Process 5 Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow, and improve. 6 Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes. Enable Others to Act 7 Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust. 8 Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion Encourage the Heart 9 Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence. 10 Celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community Leadership Capacity in School Organization Today teachers need initiatives to develop, learn, practice, evaluate, and debate in order to successfully change practice necessitating supporting leadership for change (Hargreaves and Fink, 2004). Change leaders focus on the development of teachers knowledge, skill and learning within a professional community and worked on changing the content in order to create new settings conducive to learning and share (Fullan, 2000b). In a school organization, the formal role of the leader was typically the head, but successful leaders in the leadership of change realized that sustainability of improvement was found in collective learning and the development of leadership capacity within colleagues of the school (Lambert, 2005a). Sergiovanni (2005) emphasize on head responsibility on serving as a leader of change by building and cultivating the leadership capacity of others in school. It is important for successful heads to focus on building leadership capacity in a number of good leaders within the school organization who could sustain improvement. By establishing the conditions for developing the skills, knowledge, and abilities of others during the change process, the leader enriched the schools efforts for renewal and advanced the improvement process (Mai, 2004). Effective school heads during change envisioned an expanded view of leadership in order to sustain meaningful long lasting changes. The school change process support that leadership was not viewed as the individual role, but rather as an organizational concept that leads to school improvement. Leadership is found within the culture of a school organization that promoted the advancement of the capabilities of many members to lead. Lambert, (2003) described that leadership accepted collective responsibility for school improvement and leadership capacity was realized when a school staff is participate in dialogue, and reflection to achieve student performance goals. Leadership capacity support schools in moving beyond the implementation phase of change towards sustainable improvement. Teachers leadership and effective leaders plan for sustainable leadership focus on culture of initiative and opportunity within the school (Hargreaves and Fink, 2003). Leadership capacity provides others with opportunities, resources, training, and support structures for collective learning with accountability. Leadership capacity is about learning communities promoting leadership for all participants share and understood the contributions made by each member toward the school purpose (Lambert, 2005b). Theories of Leadership Leadership historically has been defined in different ways by various writers on leadership. Authors who write about leaders emphasize on personal skills and characteristics of individual in specific roles within the organization. Some others authors focus on leadership by determining functions, which performed by person in the organization. Leithwood et al (1999) and Yukl (2002) agreed that some definitions about leadership are more useful than others, but there is no complete definition. Harris (2002) and Leithwood (2001) discussed distributed leadership as an alternative to traditional leadership models. According to Owava and Bosset (1997) leadership flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations and is based on the deployment of resources that are distributed across the network of roles, with different roles having access to different levels and types of resources. Most of the theories included their meaning in key words like â€Å"followers†, â€Å"authority†, and â€Å"decision making†. Measures of personality have been shown to correlate with ratings of leadership effectiveness. Leadership exists within a single person and a situation. Leaders are also involved in managing the culture by establishing strategic direction, communicating that direction and defining the organizational vision and values. The National College for School Leadership (NCSL, U.K) in 2003 identified eight models of leadership: Instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, post-modern, interpersonal, and contingency leadership (Bush and Glover, 2003). Successful leadership is when the influence brings about the behavior and results that were intended by the leader. Effective leadership is when successful leadership results in functional behavior and the achievement of group goals. Knowledge, personal qualities or charisma of the leader and the manner in which authority is exercised are variables for leadership. Elements that made leaders successful in the twentieth century may not be the same elements needed in the future. Leadership needs to be continually studied and investigated in order to be more effective and successful. Yukl (2006) described that leadership effectiveness is differ among researchers based upon the researchers definition of leadership. Self-Evident Theoretical Approach The â€Å"Great Man Approach† is the first theory of leadership, also called â€Å"Self-Evident Theory†. Glasman and Glasman (1997) identified this theory, which assumed that leaders are born and not made and that instinct is more important than training. The criteria for selecting leadership characteristics in this model are still confusing and unclear. Trait Theory Stogdill (1948) conducted a meta-analysis of 124 empirical studies between 1904 and 1947. By using correlation statistics, he compared specified traits of successful leaders with those of unsuccessful leaders to define if those traits were prerequisites for effective leadership. He concluded that leadership could not be explained simply in terms of an individual or group; rather, it must take into account the interaction of the leaders traits with situational variables. The review failed to find evidence a person must possess a particular set of traits to become a successful leader, which is the basic assertion of the trait approach. Yukl (2006) cited further research supporting Stogdills findings by claiming the reason for the lack of evidence linking traits to leadership success was due to poor research methods. Trait theory was based on the assumption that individuals possessed certain physical characteristics, personality traits, and intellectual abilities that made them natural leaders. Behavior Theory This theoretical approach analyzes leadership behaviors and how they correlate between them. The emphasis was shifted from investigating what effective leaders are, to investigating what effective leaders do (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004; Yukl, 2006). By the 1950s behaviorist theory assumed that leadership behaviors exercised in one situation did not necessarily transfer to other situations. Yukl discussed that behavior research has concentrated on two categories: 1) examination of leadership activities and duties and 2) examination of effective leadership behaviors. Since 1939 three Universities were involved in research of f leadership behavior. At the University of Iowa researchers identified three styles of leadership: democratic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire connecting with leaders decision-making. Those three leadership styles are still common place in the literature and discussion among practitioners in the field of educational leadership (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Also at the University of Ohio Fleishan (1953) developed questionnaire to measure how often a leader used these behaviors sorting by categories. A questionnaire composed of 150 items was completed by samples of civilian and military individuals to describe the behavior of their leaders. The study identified two dimensions of leadership: 1) consideration and 2) the ability to initiate structure (Mouton and Blake, 1984; Stogdill and Coons, 1957). Consideration was defined as the level to which a leader exhibits expressions of trust, respect, warmth, support, and concern for the welfare of subordinates (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004, p.150). Initiating structures was defined as the level to which a leader concentrates on organizational performance goals, organizes / defines tasks, establishes channels of communication, develops relationships with subordinates, and evaluates work performance (Razik and Swanson, 1995, p.42). The two categories were independent of one another. No correlation was found between a leaders uses of one type of categorical behavior with that same leaders utilization of the other type of categorical behavior. The University of Michigan (Likert, 1967) attempted to identify the correlation between a leaders behavior, group process, and group performance. Leadership studies concluded that effective leaders are both task- and relationship-oriented (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) have a different opinion with previews writers because they have not considered the effects of situational factors like differences in tasks completed, of the group, and differences in the environment. These issues are connected to the actions that must be performed by the leader and consequently on the appropriate leadership behavior to be used in the given situation. According to the Ohio and Michigan studies the initiating structure is similar to task-oriented behaviors, and consideration is similar to relation-oriented behaviors. Important role of teachers, counselors, and other school staff exercising leadership roles are distinctly different from the traditional leadership role of the head. The questionnaires from Ohio State University are modified and have been used by different researchers in many survey studies. According to that research evidence the results were not satisfied for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Fisher and Edwards, 1998; Yukl, 2006). The findings were inconsistent for the relationship between consideration and subordinate performance. Research revealed subordinates are more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate. Especially between 50s and 80s a huge amount of studies about effective leadership behaviors are concluded with effective leadership connecting with school goals and concern for relationships. Situational Theory Yukl (2006) argued that situational approach covers the social characteristics of the organizations and how they influence the type of leadership exhibited. Main important for this theory is that distinguishing characteristics of the organizational members are more important to leadership than personal traits (Glasman and Glasman, 1997; Lipham, 1973; Wildavsky, 1985). Yukl explained that there are many variables like the nature of the work performed, the type of the organization, and the features of the organizations peripheral elements. Studies for situational approach have been divided into two subcategories. According to the first subcategory leadership processes are compared in various types of managerial positions, organizations, and cultures. The second type of research emphasizes on leadership effectiveness by specific various aspects of the situation that have a bearing on the leaders attributes. Those approaches concerning aspects of leadership applying to some situations, but not others, are called contingency theories. Contingency Theory Contingency approaches specify the situational elements that describe the relationship among leaders traits, behaviors, and performance criteria. Contingency approaches include four sets of concepts: traits of leaders, characteristics of the situation, behaviors of the leader, and effectiveness of the leader. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) described that contingency theory it depends on the interaction of the leaders personal traits, behavior, and factors in the leadership situation. Fielder (1967) argued that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to match their style of leadership. During his study discovered important interactions, between leadership styles and situational variables. Fielder suggested that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to suit their style of leadership. Four contingency approaches of leadership are reviewed: The LPC Contingency Theory, Path-Goal Contingency Theory, Situational Leadership Contingency Theory, and Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory. LPC Contingency Theory: Fiedler (1967) generalized the LPC contingency theory to analyze leadership through examination of the situation, the organizational members, and its tasks. The LPC contingency theory describes how the situation affects the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure defined the least preferred coworker (LPC) score. LPC score is defined by asking a leader to select one past or present coworker with whom the leader could work least well, and rate this person on a scale of varying adjectives such as friendly or unfriendly and efficient or inefficient. The total of the ratings on these bipolar adjectives scales is the leaders PLC score. The score identifying if the leader behavior are more relationship or task motivated. Path-Goal Theory: House (1971) emphasized on the leaders ability to motivate subordinates to reach goals, the rewards associated with reaching goals, and the importance of the goal. House proposed that leaders need to examine the situational variables and then apply one of the four leadership styles (supporting, participative, directive, or achievement oriented), the one that was more close to the situation. Bolman and Deal (1991) and Golman et al., 2002 discover that effective leaders have a repertoire of styles and the leaders effectiveness is based on his/her ability to frame the situation so that he/she can use the style most suitable for the task in the context. House (1996) reconstructed this theory by modernizing the conceptions of subordinate motivation and abilities, and task characteristics as situational elements, and expanded the outcomes to include subordinate satisfaction and work unit effectiveness, but not leader traits. To be effective, leaders engage in behaviors that add to the subordinates environment in order to increase subordinates satisfaction and work effectiveness. House and Mitchell (1974) described another leadership behavior, participative leadership. Participative leadership seeks advice from organizational members and considers their opinions and suggestions in the decision making process. Yukl (2006) described that participative leadership involves various decision making processes allowing other members of staff, besides the leader, some influence over the decision. Participative leadership used to encourage democratic principles or to enhance effectiveness of the organization. Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested another reason for generalizing participative leadership in schools, the site-based management (SBM) approaches. Access to SBM for decision making is given to any legitimate stakeholder in the school based on their expert knowledge, their democratic right to choose, and their critical role in implementing decisions. Murphy and Beck (1995) suggested SBM metamorphosis takes one of three forms; administrative-controlled SBM, professional-controlled SBM, and community-controlled SBM. Main important goal for administrative-controlled SBM is to pass authority to the local school administrators to make decisions on the budget, personnel, and curriculum for the best use of resources for the students benefit. Teacher-controlled SBM is generalized to make improvement in determining how money will be spent, selection of the curriculum, and choosing personnel. Educators participation in the decision making process will give them ownership in the decisions during implementation and leads to improved effectiveness (Clune and White, 1998; David, 1989). Community controlled SBM are concerning with the accountability of parents and the community. Parents and other community members have a majority of the input when deciding upon the curriculum so it will reflect their values. Leithwood and Duke (1999) stated an equal participation SBM does exist in the form of side councils that have decision-making power. Everyone works together to make the best school decisions possible. Situational Leadership Contingency Theory: According to Hershey and Blanchard (1977) the level of the workers maturity determines the task and relationship behavior for the leader. A worker of high maturity has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a worker of low maturity lacks ability and self-confidence. At the other side Barrow (1977) believed maturity is a combination of many elements and the procedure used to weight and combine them was questionable. Yukl (2006) underlined Hershey and Blanchards theory made positive highlights of leaders to be adaptive and flexible in their behavior. Situational leadership theory emphasizes on leaders to be conscious of opportunities to increase the skills and confidence of workers. Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory: The theory according to Kerr and Jermier (1978) makes a distinction between substitutes and neutralizers, which are two different kinds of situational variables. Substitutes include all the characteristics of the worker like task, or organization ensuring the worker will clearly realize their roles, know how to do the work, be highly motivated, and have work satisfaction. Examples of substitutes would be the exceptional ability of a worker, an intrinsically satisfying task, and a cohesive work group within the organization. Usually when workers have prior experience, they already have acquired t he skills and knowledge to accomplish their tasks. If workers are motivated by their work because is according to their interests, the leader may not need to motivate them. Neutralizers are any characteristics of the organization that block a leader from acting in a specific way or that cancel the results of the leaders actions. Example is the lack of interest of workers toward rewards. In many situations there so many neutralizers that it is difficult for a leader to succeed. There are two ways to make the situation more favorable for the leader either remove the neutralizers or make the leadership less important by increasing substitutes. According to Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Ahearne, and Bommer (1995) there is a low level of relationship between the leader and other members motivation of the organization affected by situation variables. Researches concerning substitute leadership theory based on some aspects of the theory, but other aspects have not been supported (Howel Dorfman, 1986; Pitner, 1986; Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, Williams, 1993; Yukl, 2006). Yukl (2006) discussed that the main contribution of substitutes theory is to offer a different perspective on leadership by focus on leadership processes in groups and organizations. Main limitation of contingency theories is the lack of consideration of leadership processes that transform the way followers view themselves and their work. School Effectiveness Research School effectiveness and the related area of school improvement have been topics for an increasing body of academic research since the 1960s. School effectiveness research had its origins in the mid-1960s and early 1970s when a prevalent view in the research community, especially with regard to equality of opportunity, was that schools had little influence on childrens achievement that was independent of background and social context. In the late 1970s in the United States, Edmonds and, in the United Kingdom, Rutter responded by embarking on what was to emerge as the first phase of school effectiveness research. The two studies run independently by Edmonds and Rutter set out to investigate whether schools in their national contexts showed any effects when account was taken of the differences in their student populations. Their findings, arrived at independently, were similar: schools do make a small but highly significant difference to the life chances of their students. School effec tiveness research studies undertaken during the 1980s focused on improving the methodology and replicating the resea Theories of Leadership in Schools Theories of Leadership in Schools CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Schools organizations are involved into reform, change, and improvement efforts and process stemming from a desire for renewal, gaps in performance results, advancements in knowledge, mandates, and other societal deficits where responsibility has been delegated to schools (Evans, 1996). According to Fullan (2000) and Mai (2004) the problem for school organizations seeking to effectively improve or change centers on what behaviors, strategies, or structures contribute positively to organizational learning and renewal in a way the produces the capacity for sustainability in order to make a positive difference for students. Foster (2001) discussed that while the majority of past theories on school leadership have focused upon the capabilities of one individual, this accepted belief of a solitary leader is now being challenged as traditional models of leadership and organizational change are being analyzed. Thus, instead of viewing leadership as a role for one person, leadership is now being redefined as a practice shared among many individuals (Harris, 2003). Distributed leadership involved with creating joint responsibility for leadership activities. Interesting is the focus on shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Shared leadership is used as synonym for democratic leadership, and collaborative leadership. Practitioners use it to create effective school leadership, or improving schools, or to study leadership. Building leadership capacity means broad-based, skillful involvement in the work of leadership. There is a need of significant number of skillful teacher leaders who understood the shared vision in the school, and are able to carry it out. Also the work involves reflection, inquiry, conversations and focused action professional behaviors that are an integral part of daily work. Understandings and skillfulness involve more than the knowledge of an innovation. The skillfulness focused is those skills of leadership that allow other teachers to capture the imagination of their colleagues, enable them to negotiate real changes in schools and negotiate any conflicts that arise in organization (Harris and Lamber, 2003). In order to build leadership capacity for school improvement the U.K. Open University suggested the following main characteristics: Surface, clarity and define values, beliefs, assumptions, perceptions and experiences ; inquire into practice; construct meaning and knowledge ; frame action and develop implementation plans. The Cyprus Educational System is open to a wide range of influences, which create the need for change and improvement. The strategy of the Ministry of Education in Cyprus is to proceed with the Educational Reform Program in order to fully achieve the goal of an all inclusive, democratic and human school, which embraces all students equally and provides education to each and every pupil according to his/her needs. Educational Reform was launched in January 2005, following a report by a Committee of seven academics which identified the weaknesses of Cyprus Educational System and the areas in need of reform. UNESCOs Report at the end of 90s come to the summarized conclusion that â€Å"The administrative system of governing and monitoring of the Ministry of Education and Culture remains strictly centralized, bureaucratic and inflexible.† The main goal is to restructuring of Ministry of Education and Culture by modernize the organizational structure for all the departments. School Reform, Change and Improvement A lot of efforts about improving education have become national and international in scope, beginning in 1983 in USA with â€Å"A Nation at Risk† and recently â€Å"No Child Left Behind† federal legislation, (2001). Elmore (2002) explains that is not enough to focus solely on these new reform standards requirements. Continuing school improvement for all students achievement will need to develop and sustain a school climate where everyone is committed to learning and everyone is accountable for pupil achievement. Sheppard (2003) proposed that school leadership is critical for improving pupil achievement. Leithwood and Riehl (2003) according to their research findings concluded that leadership has a significant effect on student learning, curriculum and teacher instruction. Some researchers like Hallinger and Heck(1998) suggest that school survival today is depending of the effective leadership that can guide schools through the challenges of improving student achievement . Fullan (2001), Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) support that effective leadership at all levels of the educational system is critical. Also organizations cannot flourish on the actions of the top leaders alone. They suggested that schools need many leaders at many levels. Neuman and Simmons (2000) discussed that leadership is the job of the whole educational community, and learning becomes the focus and primary value for every member. Whilst the quality of teaching strongly influences levels of pupil motivation and achievement, it has been consistently argued that the quality of leadership matters in defining the motivation of teachers and the quality of teaching in the classroom (Fullan, 2001; Sergiovanni, 2001) Recent studies of effective leadership have described that authority to lead can be dispersed within the school in between and among people (MacBeath, 1998; Day, Harris and Hadfield, 200; Harris, 2002). Leadership is actually separated from person, role and status and is primarily concerned with the relationships and the connections among individuals within a school. Distributed, shared or teacher leadership is well developed and grounded in research evidence. Distributed Leadership implies a redistribution of power and re-alignment of authority within the school. Main goal is the creation of the conditions in which people work together and learn together. By giving authority to teachers and empowering them to lead leadership is emergent rather than as a fixed phenomenon. Literature review about Leadership consists of a number of leadership theories, styles and approaches. The most of these theories on school leadership have focused on individual capabilities. Recently this believes are challenged because of organizational changes and reform in our educational system. Leadership is now being re-defined as a practice distributed among many individuals (Harris, 2003). I believe that today the concept of distributed leadership is receiving much attention and growing empirical support (Spillane, 2006). The focus is oriented not upon the characteristics of the leader but upon creating the climate for shared learning and developing leadership capabilities. Spillane and Diamond (2007) discussed that distributed leadership is used as a synonym for democratic leadership, shared leadership, and collaborative leadership. In many cases distributed leadership is used to create effective school leadership, others use it for improving schools, and some for leadership research. In order to contribute to the necessary transformation of our schools, school improvement demands learning that is encourages lifelong personal and social experience. The teacher needs to feel that not only can she/he believe in school improvement, but that she/he is making her/him own contribution, and is involved in the improvement process. Improvement is something no-one would want to avoid, like good food. We argue that school improvement must be related to the re-examination of the purposes of schools in the future. The globalization of economic activity has transcended national boundaries and has created unprecedented social relations mediated through global economic practices. School improvement strategies need to move away from organizational issues and take more account of the voices of those most involved the young people themselves as well as their teachers. Today in many countries like USA schools and states emphasize on school reform and improvement by consider those factors that influence the implementation and sustainability of improvement efforts (Sergiovanni, 2006; Hall and Hord, 2006). According to the writers school improvement initiatives demand resources like additional personnel, time, money, staff development, instruments and space. For example Sergiovanni (2006) suggested that schools must institutionalize the allotment of resources to provide for the longevity of the school improvement initiative. Another main resource element necessary for school system is the school culture. School culture influences the degree to which an improvement initiative is successfully implemented (Jazzar Algozzine, 2006). Leadership Practices of Effective Head Fullan (2003) examined that principals are often the key to school improvement efforts and also he identified barriers to improvement often noted by school heads. It is important when school improvement and reform initiative is implemented from the state level, building managers must be able to encourage and motivate their staff to successfully implement the initiative. (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson, and Wahlstron, 2004). School head is a key element for school improvement efforts regardless of system imposed barriers such as not clearly identifying the heads responsibilities and lack of leadership training provided for school principals. Most important step for improvement implementation in schools is the creations of supporting culture environment for change. Heads need to establish such cultures in the following situations: In developing of policies and procedures which facilitate the improvement process. By establishment of patterns so that individuals can work together as they strive for improvement. By focusing on collaborative relationships with numbers of staff and other administrators. By teacher development and learning activities focused on the improvement initiative. By assessment of the procedures in order to evaluate and monitor improvement sequences of actions. By discussing any success according the improvement implementation. By motivate staff members for their success as they engage in improvement. The literature on effective leadership emphasize on those essential characteristics for leading school improvement. Especially Kouzes and Posner (2002a) have conducted research on the practices and skill of effective leaders by identified five practices and ten corresponding commitments that all leaders demonstrate. Kouzes and Posner (2000) practices are presented by Balcerek (1999, p.4) in a table of leadership model. Ten Commitments of Leadership Practices Commitments Model the Way 1 Find your voice by clarifying your personal values 2 Set the example by aligning actions with shared values Inspire a Shared Vision 3 Envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling possibilities 4 Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared aspirations Challenge the Process 5 Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow, and improve. 6 Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes. Enable Others to Act 7 Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust. 8 Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion Encourage the Heart 9 Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual excellence. 10 Celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of community Leadership Capacity in School Organization Today teachers need initiatives to develop, learn, practice, evaluate, and debate in order to successfully change practice necessitating supporting leadership for change (Hargreaves and Fink, 2004). Change leaders focus on the development of teachers knowledge, skill and learning within a professional community and worked on changing the content in order to create new settings conducive to learning and share (Fullan, 2000b). In a school organization, the formal role of the leader was typically the head, but successful leaders in the leadership of change realized that sustainability of improvement was found in collective learning and the development of leadership capacity within colleagues of the school (Lambert, 2005a). Sergiovanni (2005) emphasize on head responsibility on serving as a leader of change by building and cultivating the leadership capacity of others in school. It is important for successful heads to focus on building leadership capacity in a number of good leaders within the school organization who could sustain improvement. By establishing the conditions for developing the skills, knowledge, and abilities of others during the change process, the leader enriched the schools efforts for renewal and advanced the improvement process (Mai, 2004). Effective school heads during change envisioned an expanded view of leadership in order to sustain meaningful long lasting changes. The school change process support that leadership was not viewed as the individual role, but rather as an organizational concept that leads to school improvement. Leadership is found within the culture of a school organization that promoted the advancement of the capabilities of many members to lead. Lambert, (2003) described that leadership accepted collective responsibility for school improvement and leadership capacity was realized when a school staff is participate in dialogue, and reflection to achieve student performance goals. Leadership capacity support schools in moving beyond the implementation phase of change towards sustainable improvement. Teachers leadership and effective leaders plan for sustainable leadership focus on culture of initiative and opportunity within the school (Hargreaves and Fink, 2003). Leadership capacity provides others with opportunities, resources, training, and support structures for collective learning with accountability. Leadership capacity is about learning communities promoting leadership for all participants share and understood the contributions made by each member toward the school purpose (Lambert, 2005b). Theories of Leadership Leadership historically has been defined in different ways by various writers on leadership. Authors who write about leaders emphasize on personal skills and characteristics of individual in specific roles within the organization. Some others authors focus on leadership by determining functions, which performed by person in the organization. Leithwood et al (1999) and Yukl (2002) agreed that some definitions about leadership are more useful than others, but there is no complete definition. Harris (2002) and Leithwood (2001) discussed distributed leadership as an alternative to traditional leadership models. According to Owava and Bosset (1997) leadership flows through the networks of roles that comprise organizations and is based on the deployment of resources that are distributed across the network of roles, with different roles having access to different levels and types of resources. Most of the theories included their meaning in key words like â€Å"followers†, â€Å"authority†, and â€Å"decision making†. Measures of personality have been shown to correlate with ratings of leadership effectiveness. Leadership exists within a single person and a situation. Leaders are also involved in managing the culture by establishing strategic direction, communicating that direction and defining the organizational vision and values. The National College for School Leadership (NCSL, U.K) in 2003 identified eight models of leadership: Instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, post-modern, interpersonal, and contingency leadership (Bush and Glover, 2003). Successful leadership is when the influence brings about the behavior and results that were intended by the leader. Effective leadership is when successful leadership results in functional behavior and the achievement of group goals. Knowledge, personal qualities or charisma of the leader and the manner in which authority is exercised are variables for leadership. Elements that made leaders successful in the twentieth century may not be the same elements needed in the future. Leadership needs to be continually studied and investigated in order to be more effective and successful. Yukl (2006) described that leadership effectiveness is differ among researchers based upon the researchers definition of leadership. Self-Evident Theoretical Approach The â€Å"Great Man Approach† is the first theory of leadership, also called â€Å"Self-Evident Theory†. Glasman and Glasman (1997) identified this theory, which assumed that leaders are born and not made and that instinct is more important than training. The criteria for selecting leadership characteristics in this model are still confusing and unclear. Trait Theory Stogdill (1948) conducted a meta-analysis of 124 empirical studies between 1904 and 1947. By using correlation statistics, he compared specified traits of successful leaders with those of unsuccessful leaders to define if those traits were prerequisites for effective leadership. He concluded that leadership could not be explained simply in terms of an individual or group; rather, it must take into account the interaction of the leaders traits with situational variables. The review failed to find evidence a person must possess a particular set of traits to become a successful leader, which is the basic assertion of the trait approach. Yukl (2006) cited further research supporting Stogdills findings by claiming the reason for the lack of evidence linking traits to leadership success was due to poor research methods. Trait theory was based on the assumption that individuals possessed certain physical characteristics, personality traits, and intellectual abilities that made them natural leaders. Behavior Theory This theoretical approach analyzes leadership behaviors and how they correlate between them. The emphasis was shifted from investigating what effective leaders are, to investigating what effective leaders do (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004; Yukl, 2006). By the 1950s behaviorist theory assumed that leadership behaviors exercised in one situation did not necessarily transfer to other situations. Yukl discussed that behavior research has concentrated on two categories: 1) examination of leadership activities and duties and 2) examination of effective leadership behaviors. Since 1939 three Universities were involved in research of f leadership behavior. At the University of Iowa researchers identified three styles of leadership: democratic, authoritarian, and laissez-faire connecting with leaders decision-making. Those three leadership styles are still common place in the literature and discussion among practitioners in the field of educational leadership (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Also at the University of Ohio Fleishan (1953) developed questionnaire to measure how often a leader used these behaviors sorting by categories. A questionnaire composed of 150 items was completed by samples of civilian and military individuals to describe the behavior of their leaders. The study identified two dimensions of leadership: 1) consideration and 2) the ability to initiate structure (Mouton and Blake, 1984; Stogdill and Coons, 1957). Consideration was defined as the level to which a leader exhibits expressions of trust, respect, warmth, support, and concern for the welfare of subordinates (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2004, p.150). Initiating structures was defined as the level to which a leader concentrates on organizational performance goals, organizes / defines tasks, establishes channels of communication, develops relationships with subordinates, and evaluates work performance (Razik and Swanson, 1995, p.42). The two categories were independent of one another. No correlation was found between a leaders uses of one type of categorical behavior with that same leaders utilization of the other type of categorical behavior. The University of Michigan (Likert, 1967) attempted to identify the correlation between a leaders behavior, group process, and group performance. Leadership studies concluded that effective leaders are both task- and relationship-oriented (Razik and Swanson, 1995). Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) have a different opinion with previews writers because they have not considered the effects of situational factors like differences in tasks completed, of the group, and differences in the environment. These issues are connected to the actions that must be performed by the leader and consequently on the appropriate leadership behavior to be used in the given situation. According to the Ohio and Michigan studies the initiating structure is similar to task-oriented behaviors, and consideration is similar to relation-oriented behaviors. Important role of teachers, counselors, and other school staff exercising leadership roles are distinctly different from the traditional leadership role of the head. The questionnaires from Ohio State University are modified and have been used by different researchers in many survey studies. According to that research evidence the results were not satisfied for most criteria of leadership effectiveness (Bass, 1990; Fisher and Edwards, 1998; Yukl, 2006). The findings were inconsistent for the relationship between consideration and subordinate performance. Research revealed subordinates are more satisfied with a leader who is at least moderately considerate. Especially between 50s and 80s a huge amount of studies about effective leadership behaviors are concluded with effective leadership connecting with school goals and concern for relationships. Situational Theory Yukl (2006) argued that situational approach covers the social characteristics of the organizations and how they influence the type of leadership exhibited. Main important for this theory is that distinguishing characteristics of the organizational members are more important to leadership than personal traits (Glasman and Glasman, 1997; Lipham, 1973; Wildavsky, 1985). Yukl explained that there are many variables like the nature of the work performed, the type of the organization, and the features of the organizations peripheral elements. Studies for situational approach have been divided into two subcategories. According to the first subcategory leadership processes are compared in various types of managerial positions, organizations, and cultures. The second type of research emphasizes on leadership effectiveness by specific various aspects of the situation that have a bearing on the leaders attributes. Those approaches concerning aspects of leadership applying to some situations, but not others, are called contingency theories. Contingency Theory Contingency approaches specify the situational elements that describe the relationship among leaders traits, behaviors, and performance criteria. Contingency approaches include four sets of concepts: traits of leaders, characteristics of the situation, behaviors of the leader, and effectiveness of the leader. Lunenburg and Ornstein (2004) described that contingency theory it depends on the interaction of the leaders personal traits, behavior, and factors in the leadership situation. Fielder (1967) argued that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to match their style of leadership. During his study discovered important interactions, between leadership styles and situational variables. Fielder suggested that leaders could improve their effectiveness by modifying the situation to suit their style of leadership. Four contingency approaches of leadership are reviewed: The LPC Contingency Theory, Path-Goal Contingency Theory, Situational Leadership Contingency Theory, and Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory. LPC Contingency Theory: Fiedler (1967) generalized the LPC contingency theory to analyze leadership through examination of the situation, the organizational members, and its tasks. The LPC contingency theory describes how the situation affects the relationship between leadership effectiveness and a trait measure defined the least preferred coworker (LPC) score. LPC score is defined by asking a leader to select one past or present coworker with whom the leader could work least well, and rate this person on a scale of varying adjectives such as friendly or unfriendly and efficient or inefficient. The total of the ratings on these bipolar adjectives scales is the leaders PLC score. The score identifying if the leader behavior are more relationship or task motivated. Path-Goal Theory: House (1971) emphasized on the leaders ability to motivate subordinates to reach goals, the rewards associated with reaching goals, and the importance of the goal. House proposed that leaders need to examine the situational variables and then apply one of the four leadership styles (supporting, participative, directive, or achievement oriented), the one that was more close to the situation. Bolman and Deal (1991) and Golman et al., 2002 discover that effective leaders have a repertoire of styles and the leaders effectiveness is based on his/her ability to frame the situation so that he/she can use the style most suitable for the task in the context. House (1996) reconstructed this theory by modernizing the conceptions of subordinate motivation and abilities, and task characteristics as situational elements, and expanded the outcomes to include subordinate satisfaction and work unit effectiveness, but not leader traits. To be effective, leaders engage in behaviors that add to the subordinates environment in order to increase subordinates satisfaction and work effectiveness. House and Mitchell (1974) described another leadership behavior, participative leadership. Participative leadership seeks advice from organizational members and considers their opinions and suggestions in the decision making process. Yukl (2006) described that participative leadership involves various decision making processes allowing other members of staff, besides the leader, some influence over the decision. Participative leadership used to encourage democratic principles or to enhance effectiveness of the organization. Leithwood and Duke (1999) suggested another reason for generalizing participative leadership in schools, the site-based management (SBM) approaches. Access to SBM for decision making is given to any legitimate stakeholder in the school based on their expert knowledge, their democratic right to choose, and their critical role in implementing decisions. Murphy and Beck (1995) suggested SBM metamorphosis takes one of three forms; administrative-controlled SBM, professional-controlled SBM, and community-controlled SBM. Main important goal for administrative-controlled SBM is to pass authority to the local school administrators to make decisions on the budget, personnel, and curriculum for the best use of resources for the students benefit. Teacher-controlled SBM is generalized to make improvement in determining how money will be spent, selection of the curriculum, and choosing personnel. Educators participation in the decision making process will give them ownership in the decisions during implementation and leads to improved effectiveness (Clune and White, 1998; David, 1989). Community controlled SBM are concerning with the accountability of parents and the community. Parents and other community members have a majority of the input when deciding upon the curriculum so it will reflect their values. Leithwood and Duke (1999) stated an equal participation SBM does exist in the form of side councils that have decision-making power. Everyone works together to make the best school decisions possible. Situational Leadership Contingency Theory: According to Hershey and Blanchard (1977) the level of the workers maturity determines the task and relationship behavior for the leader. A worker of high maturity has both the ability and confidence to do a task, whereas a worker of low maturity lacks ability and self-confidence. At the other side Barrow (1977) believed maturity is a combination of many elements and the procedure used to weight and combine them was questionable. Yukl (2006) underlined Hershey and Blanchards theory made positive highlights of leaders to be adaptive and flexible in their behavior. Situational leadership theory emphasizes on leaders to be conscious of opportunities to increase the skills and confidence of workers. Leadership Substitutes Contingency Theory: The theory according to Kerr and Jermier (1978) makes a distinction between substitutes and neutralizers, which are two different kinds of situational variables. Substitutes include all the characteristics of the worker like task, or organization ensuring the worker will clearly realize their roles, know how to do the work, be highly motivated, and have work satisfaction. Examples of substitutes would be the exceptional ability of a worker, an intrinsically satisfying task, and a cohesive work group within the organization. Usually when workers have prior experience, they already have acquired t he skills and knowledge to accomplish their tasks. If workers are motivated by their work because is according to their interests, the leader may not need to motivate them. Neutralizers are any characteristics of the organization that block a leader from acting in a specific way or that cancel the results of the leaders actions. Example is the lack of interest of workers toward rewards. In many situations there so many neutralizers that it is difficult for a leader to succeed. There are two ways to make the situation more favorable for the leader either remove the neutralizers or make the leadership less important by increasing substitutes. According to Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Ahearne, and Bommer (1995) there is a low level of relationship between the leader and other members motivation of the organization affected by situation variables. Researches concerning substitute leadership theory based on some aspects of the theory, but other aspects have not been supported (Howel Dorfman, 1986; Pitner, 1986; Podsakoff, Niehoff, MacKenzie, Williams, 1993; Yukl, 2006). Yukl (2006) discussed that the main contribution of substitutes theory is to offer a different perspective on leadership by focus on leadership processes in groups and organizations. Main limitation of contingency theories is the lack of consideration of leadership processes that transform the way followers view themselves and their work. School Effectiveness Research School effectiveness and the related area of school improvement have been topics for an increasing body of academic research since the 1960s. School effectiveness research had its origins in the mid-1960s and early 1970s when a prevalent view in the research community, especially with regard to equality of opportunity, was that schools had little influence on childrens achievement that was independent of background and social context. In the late 1970s in the United States, Edmonds and, in the United Kingdom, Rutter responded by embarking on what was to emerge as the first phase of school effectiveness research. The two studies run independently by Edmonds and Rutter set out to investigate whether schools in their national contexts showed any effects when account was taken of the differences in their student populations. Their findings, arrived at independently, were similar: schools do make a small but highly significant difference to the life chances of their students. School effec tiveness research studies undertaken during the 1980s focused on improving the methodology and replicating the resea